Although President Dwight D. Eisenhower regularly used television as a means to address the American electorate, John F. Kennedy was the first to utilize television as a direct means of communication with voters via the live press conference. As Davis explains, "John Kennedy enjoyed press conferences because of his skill in bantering with reporters; his press conferences reinforced the image of a president in command of the issues." His successors have been measured against his performance and have scheduled press conferences less frequently. They also have employed variations to the live-press conference format. The Carter, Reagan, and Bush administrations held mini-press conferences. President Bush also relied on impromptu, daytime televised press conferences rather than the formal, prime-time gatherings. President Clinton has used a variation of the press conference with his televised "town meetings." With these conferences Clinton has managed to sidestep the White House press corps and address questions asked by average citizens. One such mini-conference featured children and was moderated by PBS's Mister Rogers.

As a general category of media strategy, focused for the last fifty years in the orchestrated use of television, press conferences involve the communication of news about an individual or organization to the mass media and specialized media outlets. The objective, obviously, is favorable news coverage of the sponsor's actions and events. According to Hendrix, press conferences are classified as uncontrolled media. Thus, with press conferences, media decision makers become the target audience members. These decision makers then determine what information to communicate with the public.

Professionals generally agree that, as a public relations tool, press conferences should be used sparingly, reserved for circumstances that truly are newsworthy. Such occasions often call for a personal presentation by the organization's chief executive officer, a celebrity, a dignitary, etc. In the general realm of business affairs some organizations have used press conferences to announce the introduction of major corporate changes such as new product lines, takeovers, or mergers. But press conferences also have been utilized to organize and manage information in crisis situations or to respond to accusations of wrongdoing.

Although in the business sector press conferences are not viewed as a routine means of public relations, major government agencies employ them on a more regular basis. Indeed, press conferences are a principle component of political communications. They are relied upon by politicians as a way of providing important information to the public and shaping public opinion and by correspondents as a means of obtaining such information and examining the opinion shaping process.

In the United States the press and politicians have traditionally enjoyed an adversarial relationship. While political press conferences are utilized to provide information to the public, the goal for the politician is persuasion or news management. Thus, the political figure wants to control the release of information. Conversely, the press rely on such conferences as a means for assuring that the politician is held accountable for his or her policies and actions. Media outlets also rely on press conferences as a way of obtaining new information so it can be released as quickly as possible.

In the United States press conferences also are essential to communications between the executive branch of government amd the public even prior to television. According to Smith, Theodore Roosevelt was one of the first U.S. presidents to use the press as a frequent means of communicating with the public. Although he did not hold formal press conferences in their contemporary sense, he realized that the media could be used to shape public opinion and established close relationships with journalists. Woodrow Wilson was the first president to hold regular and formal press conferences. Not only did he view the press as a means of influencing public opinion, but he also believed that communication via the press was a chief duty of democratic leaders.

Although not bound by law, presidential press conferences have become somewhat institutionalized. According to Smith, a sense of " ... public contract has evolved to such a degree that the general occasion of the press conference cannot be avoided with political impunity." Since the Wilson administration, all presidents have held formal press conferences. However, the decision to grant a press conference is always made by the White House, and press conferences have varied in frequency and format with each administration.

Not surprisingly, presidents are most likely to employ press conferences when the conferences serve their best advantage. Ultimately, the president can control the time, place, and setting for a press conference. To some extent, they also control the participants. In the contemporary era press conference journalists have traditionally included: ABC, CBS, and NBC; wire services; national news magazines; and national newspapers such as the New York Times and Washington Post. They also usually include a selection of reporters from other news organizations, such as regional newspapers or news syndicates, who may be more likely to pose favorable questions.

In general, press conferences often are criticized for their theatrical nature. However, for individuals, organizations, and government branches, press conferences serve an important public relations function. They are an effective means of organizing and disseminating newsworthy information to the public.

-Lori Melton McKinnon

FURTHER READING

Davis, R. The Press and American Politics: The New Mediator. White Plains, New York: Longman, 1992.

Hanson, C. "Mr. Clinton's Neighborhood." Columbia Journalism Review (New York), 1993.

Hendrix, J. A. Public Relations Cases. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1988; third edition, 1995.

Kernell, S. Going Public: New Strategies of Presidential Leadership. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1986.

Smith, C. Presidential Press Conferences: A Critical Approach. New York: Praeger, 1990.

See also Political Processes and Television; Pool Coverage; U.S. Presidency and Television