Television has capitalized on a cultural fascination with the non-human, the mysterious, the unknown, the exotic, and the remote aspects of the natural world in the form of programs devoted to the study and presentation of wildlife, geography, and other features of the biological universe. Watching such offerings, viewers can "go" to locations normally inaccessible because of physical and fiscal limitations. While there is certainly an entertainment value to such programs, they also play an important educational role. And, like all such offerings, while entertaining and educating, they also construct their own interpretation of "nature" or "the wild" or "the animal kingdom." Indeed, wildlife and nature presentations are among the most prominent in emphasizing television's capacity for "framing" and "constructing" particular points of view, while omitting others.

Most wildlife and nature programs are documentary in format. They can be classified roughly under three related categories; tourism, scientific discovery, and environmental preservation. Of these categories, the first may be distinguished from purely educational or scientific inquiry because of its commercial connection. The last is also distinct because of its political motivation.

Since most documentaries are shot on location production costs are relatively high and grants or sponsorship of some kind are necessary to sustain them. On location, film crews are kept small and efficient to minimize costs. The director often doubles as stand up and voice over narrator. Equipment usually consists of a single camera, microphone, sound recorder and lighting kit, where necessary.

Wildlife and nature programming first appeared on U.S. television in 1948 with the success of a fifteen-minute science program called The Nature of Things. The series' success lasted until 1954 and paved the way for a host of nature programs to follow. From the start, the introduction of nature and wildlife programming attracted audiences as a "great escape." These programs were fun and exhilarating to watch, and had viewers on the edge of their seats waiting for the commercial-breaks to end and the show to resume. Programs such as Zoo Parade, 1950-57, a half-hour Sunday afternoon series which looked at animals and animal behavior, included travel footage from such locations as the Amazon jungles. Another such program was Expedition, 1960-63, which documented journeys to the various remote regions of the world. Known for presenting exciting and sometimes controversial places around the globe, one episode presented a tribe in New Guinea, ruled by Tambaran--the cult of the ghost which venerated the sweet potato. In another episode, Expedition presented an aboriginal Indian tribe who had never before seen a white man.

Following the success of adult-oriented programs, such as Zoo Parade and Expedition, nature and wildlife shows changed strategies and focused attention on attracting younger audiences. Programs were often set up in a format designed to "introduce" the phenomena of wildlife and nature. Exploring, 1962-66, targeted children ages five to eleven by using methods such as storytelling, mathematics, music, science, and history. Discovery (1962-71), searched the world over for natural wonders, as did Zoo Parade and Expedition, but with the aim of attracting a younger audience. The Discovery series was designed to stimulate the cultural, historical, and intellectual curiosity of seven to twelve-year olds regarding nature. Young people were piloted through a spectrum of wonders including how animals use their tails, dramatized essays on the history of dance, the voyage of Christopher Columbus, a visit to a Texas ranch, and were introduced to the desert Native Americans. In keeping with the same format, First Look: Wonders of the World (1965-66) was designed to provide young children with an introduction to natural history, science, and the various inventions of the world. First Look's topics varied from exploring sea life to experiencing a simulated prehistoric expedition of the dinosaur period.

From the 1960s through the 1970s, wildlife and nature programming introduced a new format designed to give audiences an "untamed" and "dangerous" view into the world of nature. Programs became more "adventurous" in their presentational style. Perhaps the best known and successful of such a series was Wild Kingdom (1963-71), sponsored by Mutual of Omaha and hosted for most of its duration by Marlin Perkins. Wild Kingdom traveled to out-of-the way places in Africa, South America, the Arctic, Alaska, across the United States, Canada, and the Soviet Union in search of unusual creatures and wild adventures. The series covered such diverse topics as animal survival in the wilds, treatment of animals in captivity, and the lives and habitats of animals and primitive people and their struggle for survival. Similar documentary series followed which focused on animals and their struggle for survival included The Untamed World (1969-71); Wild, Wild World of Animals (1973-76); The World of Survival (1971); Safari To Adventure (1971-73); and Animal World (Animal Kingdom) (1968-80). Another such program was Jane Goodall and The World of Animal Behavior (1973-74). ABC aired several nature documentaries featuring Miss Goodall, who came to national attention as a scientist who lived among the apes. Here the scientist as "adventurer-hero" became a central narrative focus. Two successful efforts in her ABC series were "The Wild Dogs of Africa"(1973) and the "Baboons of Gombe" (1974) which attracted audiences with their "realism" and detailed an intimate visual portraits.

In order to give audiences an alternative to the harsh realities of nature, wildlife programs added a "sophisticated approach" with the airing of such programs as the National Geographic Specials (1965-). Produced in cooperation with the National Geographic Society, this long running series of specials on anthropology, explorations, biological, historical and cultural subjects was first aired on CBS (1965-73), then on ABC (1973-74) and currently can be seen on PBS (1975-). The National Geographic Specials, in keeping with the traditions of the journal and the society that stand behind them, are noted for exceptional visual qualities. Another such program was Animal Secrets (1966-68), which disclosed the mysteries of wildlife behavior in an appealing nature series and explored such phenomena as how bees buzz, how fish talk, and why birds migrate. A program on "The Primates," filmed in Kenya, presented a study of baboons; their social order and living patterns were observed to find clues to the development of man. The high-quality film series Nova (1974-) also relied on detailed productions with exceptional production values. Nova is noted for examining complex scientific questions in a manner comprehensible to laymen and in a relatively entertaining fashion. For the most part, the series concerns itself with the effects on nature and society of new developments in science. The close connection of this program with the Public Broadcasting Service has almost reached "brand" identification, and the program is often cited as an example of what PBS is and can do.

For a short period of time, wildlife documentaries added a new frontier to the nature of inquiry by examining "oceans and marine worlds." With the appearance of such programs as Water World (1972-75) and the very popular Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau (1967-76) a new market was opened and added to the previous audience. The Undersea World centered around the scientific expeditions of Captain Jacques Cousteau and the crew of his specially equipped vessel, the Calypso. The first show began on ABC in 1968 and continued for nearly eight years. ABC dropped the series in 1976, but it continued on PBS with underwriting by the Atlantic Richfield Corporation. Since 1981 Cousteau's environmental series and specials have been produced for Turner Broadcasting System (TBS) in a number of short series.

As the decade of the 1970s closed there was a movement towards bringing back traditional methods of presenting wildlife and nature programming--as if "reintroducing" the areas would stir up an interest in the subject. One such program, Animals, Animals, Animals (1976-81), explored the relationship of animals and man in order to help youngsters and inquiring adults understand various wildlife phenomena and the interrelated scheme of nature. An entertainment focus was combined with an introduction to the world of science, zoology and biology, and each episode focused on a particular animal in an exciting, yet simplistic manner. By the 1980s a few wildlife and nature programs such as Nature (1982-) and Wild America (1982-) sustained the "adventurous" format that marked the era of the 1960s and 1970s. For the most part, however, 1980s programming appeared to make greater strides when the focus was on ecology and "saving the planet." During this period programs such as Universe (Walter Cronkite's Universe) (1980-82) and Life on Earth (1982), often focused on space--the solar system and beyond--in order to understand the phenomena of nature and society.

Another major advancement for wildlife and nature programming occurred in 1985 when The Discovery Channel, an all documentary cable network, was launched into homes across the nation. This network was devoted chiefly to presenting documentaries on nature, science-technology, travel, history, and human adventure--finally, there was something for everyone. By 1990, the Discovery Channel's penetration passed the 50 million mark, making it one of the fastest growing cable networks of all time. Today, the Discovery Channel has become an alternative outlet for the kinds of nature and wildlife programs that in the 1980s had to depend on public television for exposure. With the success of Discovery Channel, another cable network has joined the nature campaign. Nickelodeon (1979-), a children's programming network, recently teamed with Sea World of Florida to educate young people about the importance of conserving the earth's natural resources, the protection of endangered species, pollution prevention, and the importance of recycling. In the 1990s, "Nickelodeon's Cable in the Classroom" service and "Sea World's Shamu TV: Sea World Video Classroom" service provides a hands-on program for audiences from preschoolers to college postgraduates about sea-life and the ecology.

A number of programs focused on nature and wildlife have stepped beyond the most common U.S. television goals of entertaining and informing. They have not only attempted to support the preservation of species and environments but to hold corporations and governmental agencies accountable for acts of pollution and destruction. Films of this type often record dramatic confrontations between those who seek to conserve and those who seek to exploit the environment. The environmental activist group Greenpeace, for example, adopts as part of its policy the need to identify and protest callous indifference toward animals and the environment, and has used such films with great advantage. It remains to be seen whether or not television will eventually be used in a similar manner, or whether "nature" will continue to be presented either as an entertaining commodity or as an exotic topic for popular education.

-Nanetta Durnell and Richard Worringham