The Concept

     As an adjective, multicultural may be used simply to describe the demographic realities of a state, region, or community. As a noun, multiculturalism may be used to refer to a particular ideology, wherein racial and ethnic diversity is highly valued in and of itself. The term Multiculturalism may also refer to social policies that recognize demographic realities, promote equality, and combat racism and discrimination.

     A major difference between Canadian and American usage of the concept is that in Canada, the idea of multiculturalism has become a foundation for federal policy, whereas in the United States it remains a topic of heated debate in civil society. Multiculturalism in Canada assumed yet another nuance of meaning when multiculturalism within a bilingual (French/ English) framework became a policy of the federal government. Thus, the emergence of multicultural policies in Canada was rooted in the fact of French/English biculturalism. English and French language private radio stations were on air at the beginning of broadcasting in Canada. The national public broadcaster (CRBC, now the CBC) began programming in 1932 in both languages; by 1938 separate English and French networks were in place. The story of Canadian radio and multiculturalism is situated in the context of this duality.

     A subsequent set of policies and constitutional changes occurred during the 1970s and the early 1980s. The Official Languages Act of 1969, the Multiculturalism Act of 1971, and the Canadian Human Rights Act of 1978 set the groundwork for the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which accompanied the Constitutional Act of 1982. Each of these acts added legitimacy to the application of multicultural policies in broadcasting.

     In order to trace the path of multicultural policies in broadcasting, it is necessary to look at the interplay of four institutions: (1) the Broadcasting Act and the Canadian Broadcasting System, (2) the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission, (3) the Canadian Association of Broadcasters, and (4) the Canadian Broadcasting Standards Council. Each of these institutions is the locus of policies and regulations governing the recognition of diversity in broadcasting.

     Although there have been several versions of the Broadcasting Act since 1932, references here are to the most recent version, which was passed in 1991. It is significant that the act considers Canadian broadcasters, public and private alike, as a single system-the Canadian Broadcasting System-to which the act and all subsequent regulations apply. Furthermore, the intrusion of the act into the private sector is based on the premise that the airwaves are public property. It is within the general mandate of the "enhancement of national identity and cultural sovereignty ... operating primarily in the English and French languages" that multicultural policies and regulations must find their niche. The act accents both employment equity and program content with respect to cultural diversity, noting gender, age, aboriginal status, language, and cultural and racial diversity.

     The task of implementing this position was given to the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). The CRTC's mandate was originally provided for in the 1968 Broadcasting Act.

     Guidelines for the development of employment equity are set out in the commission's regulations, and licensees are required to report on progress. As for programming, the commission requires that it reflect the linguistic duality, cultural diversity, and social values of Canada, as well as national, regional, and community voices.

     A good deal of the monitoring and vetting of complaints defers to the Canadian Association of Broadcasters (CAB) and its creation, the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council (CBSC). CAB members include 402 radio stations, 78 television stations, 1 network, and 15 specialty services. By February 1998, the CAB had two codes in place, one specific to violence on television and the other a general code of ethics. The human rights clause in the code stipulates that, every person has a right to full and equal recognition and to enjoy certain fundamental rights and freedoms, broadcasters shall endeavor to ensure, to the best of their ability, that their programming contains no abusive or discriminatory material or comment that is based on matters of race, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, age, sex, marital status, or physical or mental handicap ... [and, further, that] television and radio program­ ming shall portray the wide spectrum of Canadian life. Women and men shall be portrayed with fair and equitable demographic diversity, taking into account age, civil status, race, ethnocultural origin, physical appearance, sexual orientation, background, religion, occupation, socioeconomic condition, and leisure activities, while actively pursuing a wide range of interests. Portrayals should also take into account the roles and contributions of the mentally, physically and socially challenged.

     The articles of this code are the basis upon which complaints are received by the CBSC. The CBSC, an independent, nonprofit organization, was established by the CAB. Its membership includes 387 private-sector radio and television stations and networks programming in English, French, and other languages. With the approval of the CRTC, the council plays an intermediate regulatory role, free of government formalities and sanctions.

The Howard Stern Affair: A Case in Point

    The response of the CBSC to complaints regarding Howard Stern's appearance on Canadian radio and the response of the radio stations to the council provide a recent illustration of how the system operates within the regulatory field surrounding cultural diversity. The Howard Stern Show was first syndicated to Canada on 2 September 1997 and aired over CHOM­ FM in Montreal and CILQ-FM in Toronto. Over the two weeks following the first broadcast, the CBSC received over 1,000 signed complaints in addition to complaints directed to the CRTC, which were forwarded to the CBSC. The CBSC, in turn, forwarded all complaints to the broadcasters, who, according to established procedures, were required to respond in writing to each of the complainants.

     The complaints opened at least three lines of inquiry. First, the national origin of the broadcast brought into play sections of the Broadcasting Act limiting foreign content and talent. Second, the show appeared to violate the CAB Code of Ethics with respect to offensive statements directed to cultural groups, and third, it appeared to violate the code regarding sex-role stereotyping. The stations' responses to the complainants noted that the content of the show did not reflect the views or opinions of the broadcasters and that on-air advisories were given; furthermore, the responses defended the content as comedy, not intended as serious commentary on social or political issues. The rationale presented by the broadcasters was insufficient to prevent an investigation by the CBSC's regional councils in Quebec and Ontario. It is important to note that such an exercise emerges from voluntarily established codes drawn up by the CAB, an industry-wide trade association. The CBSC condemned the show. The sanctions were two­ fold: first, the stations were required to announce the decisions during prime time and within 30 days of notification and to provide confirmation of the airing of the decisions to the CBSC and to each of the complainants. The CBSC can do no more. Second, the response of the stations will influence license renewal hearings before the CRTC, which has the authority to refuse renewal. CHOM-FM in Montreal canceled the show, and CILQ-FM in Toronto continued to carry it.

Radio Practices

  Apart from employment equity, an improving situation in Canadian radio, and the curbing of bluntly offensive material, multicultural sensitivity in radio entails the broadcasting of programs of special interest to minorities, of minority languages, and of popular music programming that meets minority needs, in other words, programming that permits members of minority groups to "hear themselves speak." Mainstream French- and English-language stations are weak in this respect. A few, very few, in metropolitan areas will broadcast alternative music and music specialized to the interests of various ethnic groups, and some will, in off hours, broadcast local community events in a language other than French or English. But for the most part, "ethnic" programming is to be found on alternative radio-community and internet radio.

Radio stations owned and operated by universities and colleges are the most notable in this respect. Most such stations broadcast directly to identified minorities in their region. For example, CJSW-FM, broadcasting from the University of Calgary, airs programs in German, Serbian, Croatian, and Chinese. CHSR-FM, operated by the University of New Brunswick in Fredericton, broadcasts multilingual programs sponsored by their South Asian, Muslim, and Chinese Student Associations. CISM-FM, owned by the University of Montreal and broadcasting in French, provides Afro-Haitian coverage. CHUO-FM, the station of the University of Ottawa, broadcasts in French and English, with coverage in several other languages, including German, Korean, and Cantonese.

In addition, independently owned and membership-supported community radio- stations provide programming for a variety of minorities. CHIR-FM, Toronto, broadcasts regular programming in Greek and English over cable and the internet. CIBL-FM in Montreal, broadcasting principally in French, covers a wide variety of music meeting the interests of several local minority groups. CFRO-FM out of Vancouver presents programs in Spanish, Amharic, Farsi, Armenian, and Salish, a First Nations language. CKWR-FM of Waterloo, Ontario, broadcasts a newsmagazine on Monday evening featuring gay, les­bian, and bisexual issues. Several stations broadcast programs to the Mohawk people of Ontario, Quebec, and New York. These include, among others, CKON-FM, which straddles the three borders in Akwesasne; KWE-FM out of Tyendinaga, near Belleville, Ontario; and CKRK-FM out of Kahnawake, near Montreal. CFWE, "The Aboriginal Voice of Alberta," broadcasts via satellite to 200 communities across Canada. These are but a few of the several private and community stations broadcasting local programs to First Nation communities.

In addition, the CBC inaugurated broadcasting in the Arctic territories in 1960. Presently, CBC Nunavut broadcasts across ​​the eastern Arctic and northern Quebec in Inuktitut and English. In the west, CBC Northern Territories serves its listeners in six different languages with 48 hours of locally produced programming, 17 hours in aboriginal languages. CFRT, Radio Iqaluit, a French language station, serves its listeners in Nunavut and northern Quebec in French, Inuktitut, and English.