Pilots are expensive to produce, and shows that are not purchased by a network have no value. Since the new season is planned using pilots, and the entire offering of a network is usually in place by mid-May, the careful selection of pilots is crucial for designing a competitive lineup of shows. Shows made as pilots during this period are frequently the culmination of long-term preparation, sometimes spanning years. A pilot concept deemed unacceptable by network executives in one year may later become suitable as tastes and mores change. Writers and producers may also design potential shows based on the popularity of programming from a previous season. For example, the final fall 1995–96 season contained several programs resembling the 1994–95 sleeper hit, Friends (NBC). Youth-oriented, nighttime soaps such as Melrose Place (FOX, 1992) and Central Park West (CBS, 1995) traced their lineage to the unexpected popularity of Beverly Hills, 90210 (FOX, 1990). Another source for pilot concepts comes from cycles of popular genres in motion pictures or television. In some cases, networks derive pilots by developing “spin-offs,” which use characters or guest stars from television shows or movies to establish a new program. In 2000 CBS considered a pilot starring talking Baby Bob, a character originally developed to pitch FreeInternet.com.

The process begins when a writer or producer “pitches” an idea to the networks. Pitches may occur year-round, but most occur in autumn, shortly after the fall season premieres. By then, network executives have already begun to consider the success or failure of new programming and have charted trends in topics, types of characters, and other information pertinent to development. If a pitched concept is given a “green light,” the network will commission a script, to be written by the series’ creator or by a well-known writer. After reading the completed script, the interested network offers extensive notes on changes as well as positive elements. Few scripts are commissioned, and fewer still lead to the production of a pilot; estimates suggest that out of 300 pitches, approximately 50 scripts are commissioned, and of those, only 6 to 10 lead to the production of a pilot.

Because pilots may take months or years to develop, casting becomes a primary concern during the actual pilot-making process. The first quarter of the year is often the busiest, most lucrative time for actors, agents, producers, and casting directors. Networks like projects that come with a known star attached and are willing to pay a studio more if a potential program contains an actor with a following or name recognition. A pilot that is also a star vehicle generates more publicity: the press increases its commentary and gossip about the star or show; fans of the star already exist, thereby building a core audience for the show’s debut; and the presence of a star gives a show an advantage over competition in similar genres or opposing time slots.

Network executives are aware, however, that known stars often fail to carry shows and lesser-known performers can quickly build audiences. A 1990s trend involved the casting of stand-up comedians. Unknown to most viewers, but with solid track records in clubs or other venues, such actors cost less initially but have enhanced potential for becoming successes. Roseanne, Jerry Seinfeld, and Tim Allen illustrated the intelligence of this strategy.

The choice of leading players also influences later casting of supporting actors. Appealing, marketable pilots may sell based on the “chemistry” between the star and members of the supporting cast. In the case of situation comedies (sitcoms), such interplay is often a deciding factor in choosing one pilot over another.

Producers spend a disproportionate amount of money on pilots relative to series’ regular episodes. By the early 1990s, the average cost for a half-hour pilot ranged from $500,000 to $700,000, and hour-long pilot program costs have soared beyond $2 million, with James Cameron’s pilot for Dark Angel reportedly costing close to $10 million. If a show is not contracted (or “picked up”) by a network, then producers or studios are not reimbursed for costs.

A trend that began in the mid-1990s, designed to cut costs, is the production of shorter presentation tapes, called “demos.” Instead of making a standard-length, 22-minute sitcom using new sets, original music, and complete titles, producers create a partial episode, 15 minutes in length. The presentation tape provides a sample of the show’s premise, writing, and cast. Studios rely on preexisting sets, furniture, and props from other shows; titling and new music are limited. If a network buys the series, presentation tapes may be expanded to episode format by adding music, titles, and new footage. If not contracted, the presentation format helps offset costs. Comparable techniques are used in preparing hour-long presentation tapes.

Producers screen finished pilots for network representatives; if the show receives favorable opinions, it will be shown to a test audience, which comments on its qualities. Based on screenings and other criteria, a network decides whether to reject or purchase the series intact, or change cast, location, premise, or other elements, and rescreen. Another decision involves purchase and scheduling; executives must decide whether to contract for “one bite” or “two bites.” A one-bite show gets a tryout during the fall schedule; if a show is being contemplated for two bites, its producers know that it may be chosen in the fall, or also as midseason replacement programming, giving it two chances to be selected. Once decisions are made, networks place orders for a number of episodes. Traditionally, at least 13 to as many as 23 episodes were ordered for production; recent changes have led to as few as 7. For actors, “pickup” means a contractual commitment to the show for five to seven years; if the show is not renewed after three years of production, the actor is not paid for the remainder of the contract. Such contracts safeguard a producer’s interests: the actor is available for an extended run of the series, increasing the likelihood that at least 100 episodes will be made—the minimum number usually needed for domestic syndication. However, the networks often revise pilots after purchase, recasting stars or replacing producers.

The addition of new networks, cable stations, and premium channels is altering the process of pilot production and sales, by creating more outlets for programs—even those rejected by other networks. A record 42 new series appeared in U.S. prime time during the 1995 fall season, in part because of the previous year’s addition of the United Paramount Network (UPN) and the Warner Brothers (WB) Network. These joined relative newcomer FOX Broadcasting Company as a venue for new pilots and subsequent programming. During the pilot season for the 1998–99 schedule, the six major networks commissioned approximately 150 pilots for potential new shows but chose to purchase only 37.

Although pilots and presentation tapes remain essential in the process of program development, new regulations and strategies may eliminate the pilot-producing season. HBO has initiated new programs in June, and more channels are in development for series and movies all year long. It is clear that as the marketing and distribution strategies and capabilities of entertainment television continue to shift and change, so, too, will the process by which programs come to be created and viewed.