In the United States, press pools often are associated with war efforts. Indeed, the free press always has been considered a little too free for the Pentagon. The Vietnam War represented the first instance when press coverage brought significant numbers of negative images of U.S. military action into American homes. Since this war the first example of military “guidance” of what the press could and could not cover occurred during the U.S. invasion of Grenada in October 1983. Outcries from the press against the military’s virtual blackout of the media’s in formation-gathering efforts in that action brought the establishment of the Department of Defense’s National Media Pool.

The Pentagon chooses members of the National Media Pool by lottery. Members of the press take turns serving in the pool. Pool reporters write accounts of the activities they view and share their information with other members. To be included in the National Media Pool, news organizations must demonstrate a familiarity with U.S. military affairs and maintain a correspondent who regularly covers military affairs and Pentagon press conferences; maintain a Washington, D.C., staff; be able to participate in the pool on standby and be able to deploy a reporter within a mini-mum of four hours; agree to adhere to pool ground rules; and be U.S. owned and operated.

The National Media Pool is designed to represent all news organizations and to serve as the eyes and ears of Americans when the U.S. military is active. However, pool reports often have a uniform quality because all reporters are given access to the same information. Moreover, many journalists claim that military officials often make it hard to provide objective, firsthand coverage of events.

In 1992 representatives from the military and news organizations developed nine principles for pool coverage. As outlined by D. Gersh, these principles embrace open and independent reporting. Furthermore, pools should not be the standard means of coverage; pools may be necessary for specific events and should be disbanded when needed; journalists will be given credentials by the U.S. military and must abide by security rules; journalists will be provided access to all major military units, although special operation restrictions may limit some access; military officials will act as liaisons; field commanders will permit journalists to ride on military vehicles and aircraft when feasible; and materials will be provided to ensure timely, secure, and compatible transmission of pool material (see Gersh, 1992).

According to Mark Thompson (2002), the National Media Pool “came to life on July 19, 1987, when a ban of ten reporters took off from Andrews Air Force Base for its first real-world deployment” (to witness U.S. military operations in the Persian Gulf). In theory, such pool coverage would provide independent press coverage to journalists while maintaining the safety and security of the nation’s most sensitive military operations. However, Thompson contends that military resistance has prevented the National Media Pool from reaching this potential. In one notable example, although pool reporters were notified to stand by after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the pool was not officially deployed during the U.S. attack in Afghanistan in the months that followed.

Media resources also have been pooled to reduce the unnecessary clutter of camera crews at the scene of an event. Pools have been implemented to cover the Republican and Democratic national conventions, presidential primaries, and high-profile elections. They also are utilized to provide coverage of individual political candidates. According to Dan Nimmo and James E. Combs, each day on the campaign trail, a couple of members of the pool reporters are in close contact with the candidate. These members may be “on the candidate’s private plane, at small enclaves, during motorcades, and so forth.” These reporters write accounts of the candidate’s activities, which are then made available to pool journalists who cannot be with the candidate. In presidential elections, pool members are elite press members. Nimmo and Combs explain that there is a pecking order for pool members: “At the top are national political reporters—experienced correspondents of prestigious newspapers, the wire services, national newsmagazines, and television networks. At the bottom are the representatives of smaller newspapers and organizations.” Regardless of status, pool coverage often is similar. Timothy Crouse (1974) writes, “After a while, they [pool journalists] began to believe in the same rumors, subscribe to the same theories, and write the same stories.”

Recently, pools have been enlisted to organize coverage of high-profile criminal trials. According to Gersh (1991), when serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer was tried for 17 murders allegedly involving cannibalism, more than 450 journalists flocked to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, from around the world to cover the bizarre story. Daniel Patrinos, media coordinator for the Wisconsin court, set up a pool system to handle coverage of the proceedings. In addition to utilizing advisories from Associated Press, United Press International, and Reuters wire services, Patrinos saw to it that local community papers (including black and gay newspapers) were well informed. The judge in this case allowed 23 pool journalists into the courtroom and allowed others to watch from a media center.

Likewise, reporters, photographers, and camera crews turned out in record numbers on January 23, 1995, for the opening statements of the trial of O.J. Simpson on double murder charges. Judge Lance Ito allowed only pool journalists into the courtroom, and a media room was set up for other journalists. In spite of these controls, the term most often used to describe the situation was “media circus.”

Whether pool coverage is used to report on military combat, to cover political races, or to control coverage in high-profile legal cases, the goal of pool coverage is the same. Pool coverage, while providing journalists access to events, offers those who employ it a way to manage media coverage.